Spring, 1943
Chapter 23
The End in the Desert
April - June
As the winter came to an end the war in the East settled down somewhat, as both sides began to build up for their own respective summer offensives. In the deserts of North Africa the Axis were facing imminent defeat as they were crushed into an ever-shrinking pocket around Tunis, while the war in the skies over Europe continued to escalate as the Allied bombing offensive ramped up. In the Pacific the Americans were ready to begin another new offensive, as well as take revenge for Pearl Harbor in the skies over Bougainville Island.
Europe: The Eastern Front
German troops pass a destroyed Soviet tank
In the aftermath of the German counteroffensive that had retaken the city of Kharkov in Ukraine in March, the Red Army was left with casualties in the tens of thousands, and was forced to halt. The Germans too, for their part, were by now exhausted, although a strategic withdrawal had allowed them to constrict the front and free up additional units, which now began to mass for their next summer offensive, designated Operation Citadel. The end of the offensives of the winter and spring had left the Soviets in control of a salient on the line in the sector around Kursk, and it was here the Germans planned to strike, using their tried and true envelopment tactics to close off the salient and destroy the Red Army forces within.
The Soviets, for their part, were aware that the Germans planned to strike at Kursk, and after some arguments within the Stavka elected to mass their own forces in the same sector, with strong defenses being built to wear down the Germans when they came and mobile forces concentrated for rapid counterattacks when the moment presented itself.
German defenses along the Kuban Bridgehead
While these preparations continued, the Axis forces in the Caucasus had been forced to make a rapid withdrawal as the lines had collapsed around Stalingrad in the winter, and now many were ensconced within a strong defensive position adjacent from the Crimea designated as the Kuban Bridgehead. Intended to be used as a jumping off point for a renewed attack in the region, the Germans, along with Romanian forces, were under constant attack by the Red Army, but with positions in some areas nearing forty miles in depth, they would hold for some time.
Luftwaffe HE111 bombers over the Soviet Union
German Federal Archives
Despite misgivings both in the OKW and the Stavka, a great set-piece battle was now set to occur around Kursk, and as both sides prepared their respective armies, it was clear that this would decide the fate of the war, as the Germans looked to regain the imitative after the disaster on the Volga.
Europe: North Africa
RAF Hawker Hurricanes take off for a tank buster sortie in Tunisia
Original Color
The war in North Africa was, by now, confined to Tunisia. The Americans, advancing from Algeria, and the Anglo-Australian forces coming from the broken Mareth Line, were by now closing in on Tunis. Constantly harassed by the RAF and USAAF, the broken remnants of the Afrika Korps and the Italian Army in Libya were staging a fighting withdrawal toward the port, as their last avenues of resupply and reinforcement were closed one by one.
British soldiers assault an enemy position near Tunis
The British launched attacked the German-Italian lines near Wadi Akarit on 6 April, and by the following day had breached them. As they withdrew from the area around Gabes as a consequence of this, Montgomery’s British 8th Army was able to link up with the American II Corps under Patton. German and Italian counterattacks were launched, but were unable to reclaim their positions in Gabes, prompting a full withdrawal northward in mid April.
The first American and British soldiers to meet as the US II Corps met the British 8th Army
Despite attempts by the Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica to support their forces in Tunisia via an airlift, the Allies had achieved air superiority in the theater, and casualties were mounting fast. Over the month of April the Axis would lose over a hundred transports, a loss from which neither the German nor Italian air forces would be able to recover. On the ground, a new offensive was launched on 22 April, designated Operation Vulcan. Despite vicious resistance the Allies began to overcome the Axis lines, and on 23 April the British overran the German positions on Longstop Hill, which represented the last major position before Tunis proper.
A German 88mm Flak cannon firing at targets in Tunisia
German Federal Archives
The Americans, meanwhile, attacked the Germans at Hill 609, a commanding position that finally fell on 1 May after four days of fighting. German counterattacks proved fruitless, and by 6 May Operation Strike, the final stage of the campaign, was commenced. Following a massive artillery barrage, the attack met with only scattered resistance as the Axis forces began to collapse in earnest.
German and Italian soldiers attempt to flee by sea as North Africa falls
On 7 May Tunis fell to the British as the Americans captured Bizerte. By now the Axis forces were utterly disorganized, with some even attempting to escape by rafts, only to be picked up by the Royal Navy warships waiting offshore. As the Americans besieged the last bastion of resistance at Enfidaville, the German commander who had replaced Rommel upon the Desert Fox’s recall to Germany earlier in the year, Hans-Jurgen von Arnim, was captured by British Indian troops. He issued orders for the capitulation of his 5. Panzerarmee on 12 May.
General von Arnim, commander of the German forces in North Africa after the recall of Rommel, is taken into British captivity
The Italians, under Marshal Giovanni Messe promoted only on 12 May by Mussolini), held out for another day, hoping to negotiate with the Allies. This proved impossible as his forces disintegrated, and on 13 May he too capitulated, ending the all Axis resistance in Africa.
Europe: The War at Sea
A German U-Boat under attack by an RAF bomber off the Bay of Biscay
In the Atlantic, the U-boats “Second Happy Time” was coming to an end. Increased Allied air presence and improved training was taking a sharp toll. In what became known as “Black May”, the losses of the Kriegsmarine’s submarine arm began to increase as kill tallies dropped. During the course of the month the 43 U-boats were sunk for only 58 merchantmen. This disastrous turn of events led to Grand Admiral Donitz ordering the recall of the entire fleet in the North Atlantic, as the OKM rethought its strategy for the war going forward.
Europe: The Air War
The crew of the B17 Memphis Belle leave their bomber after their final mission
In the skies over Europe, the USAAF and the RAF were escalating their campaign against Germany. Raids on various targets continued throughout out the spring, with major attacks on a number of cities including the ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel. In mid May a milestone was reached, as the USAAF B17 Flying Fortress Memphis Belle became the first to reach the required 25 missions to be rotated back to the United States, where the aircraft and crew subsequently undertook a war bond tour around the country. In the Mediterranean, another American unit was entering action, as the all-black pilots of the 99th Fighter Squadron, later known as the Tuskegee Airmen, went into action over the island of Pantelleria.
The Luftwaffe was not inactive either, with operations taking place both over the Mediterranean and Britain. As the front constricted in Tunisia the Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica found itself forced to operator from bases in Italy and Sicily, greatly reducing their operational time over the theater, in turn reducing their effectiveness. Meanwhile, the Luftwaffe launched several major air raids on British cities as the season wore on.
The aftermath of the destruction of the Mohne Dam during Operation Chastise
German Federal Archives
In another episode that would become one of the most famous of the war, the RAF launched a raid on the dams of Ruhr region on the night of 16 May. Nineteen Lancaster heavy bombers of No.617 Squadron raided the dams, equipped with specially designed bombs. These “bouncing bombs” were designed to skip across the water before rolling down the dam to detonate, ensuring a breach while avoiding the anti-torpedo nets that were standard to protect such structures. Two dams were destroyed, causing flooding that would destroy numerous factories and other industrial targets. The death toll was also very high, with estimates of over 1,500 killed in the raid and subsequent floods.
Europe: Occupied Europe
Terrified Polish Jews are forced from a shelter by the SS as the Warsaw Ghetto is liquidated
In the vast areas of Europe under the control of the Third Reich, the populations declared “sub-human” by the regime had by now long since crossed the line from persecution to genocide. The SS had begun large scale liquidations of the various ghettos, with vast numbers of people murdered outright or deported to camps where the murder was by now underway at an industrial scale.
Two SS men observe their work during the liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto
German Federal Archives
On the eve of Passover, 19 April, the SS entered the largest of the ghettos, in Warsaw, with the intention of removing or killing the remaining inhabitants. Much to their surprise, they found themselves caught in a crossfire from the buildings, as Molotov cocktails rained on their group from the surrounding buildings. Over the preceding months, Jewish Resistance forces had been building fortifications and stockpiling arms, and the Germans were initially unable to complete their task. These failures reached all the way up to Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler, who dismissed the leader of SS forces in Warsaw in response. Replacing him was SS Brigadefuhrer Wilhelm Stroop, who led his forces in a systematic burning of the ghetto, even as Polish Resistance forces outside attempted to breach the Ghetto in a series of attacks. By 8 May the leader of the revolt, Mordechai Anielewicz, was killed as the SS stormed his bunker, and the SS declared the operation complete with the destruction of the Great Synagogue on 16 May.
The Pacific: Pacific Islands
Australian soldiers rest on a ridge in New Guinea
In the Pacific, the long, bitter battle for New Guinea continued unabated. Australian and US troops continued to slowly push the Japanese back through the jungles, with heavy fighting around Bobdubi and Lababia Ridge. Australian troops also engaged in an offensive at Mubo in mid April, and were faced by Japanese counterattacks in June. Fighting in the area would continue on into the summer.
An American mortar in action on Attu
In a far colder clime, the US Army’s 7th Infantry Division landed on the island of Attu, one of the Alaskan Aleutian Islands. Encountering well dug in Japanese positions, the Americans engaged in a bitter battle frozen island, taking many casualties to exposure as well as the Japanese. As they were reduced into a pocket around the harbor at Chichagof, the defenders massed and launched a series of suicidal banzai charges against the Americans, breaking through their lines and engaging the rear echelon units in bayonet combat. By 30 May almost all the defenders had been killed, and the Americans declared the island secure.
US troops landing on Kiriwina Island during Operation Cartwheel
In the south Pacific, the Americans were commencing their follow up plan after their victory on Guadalcanal. Operation Cartwheel was aimed at capturing several islands in order to isolate the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul. The first step was aimed at the islands of Woodlark and Kiriwina, which were secured with no resistance on 30 June. This was followed by landings on New Georgia on the same day, which would be the beginning of yet another long campaign.
The Pacific: China
Chinese soldiers in action near Hubei
On 5 May, the Japanese in China launched a major offensive into the province of Hubei, driving toward the Yangtze River. Almost a week later the river had been crossed, and the Japanese were advancing in a pincer movement, until they met the Nationalist Chinese armies near Taishi, where they suffered heavy casualties. Eventually, hampered by the terrain as well as resistance, the Japanese withdrew back to their original lines in mid June.
The Pacific: The War at Sea
The Australian Hospital Ship Centaur
Original Color
The naval war in the Pacific continued, athough there were no major engagements in the spring of 1943. The IJN had been massing its fleet in May to releive the garrison on Attu, but was unable to set out before the island fell. In one notable incident, the Australian Hospital Ship Centaur was torpedoed and sunk by the Japanese submarine I-177 with a total of 268 killed. The attack was commenced despite the clear marking of the vessel as a hospital ship, and caused considerable outrage amongst the Allied Powers.
The Pacific: The Air War
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto salutes assembled pilots before leaving Rabaul
In the South Pacific, the Japanese launched an aerial offensive designated Operation I-Go, hoping to slow or halt the American advance in the region. The operation would in the end claim several US ships as well as 25 aircraft. This was, in all, somewhat inconclusive, but the operation did allow the Americans to more closely track its commander, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. Eventually, US cryptanalysts were able to crack the Admiral’s entire travel itinerary, and an operation was quickly authorized to move against the man blamed more than any other for Pearl Harbor.
A US Army Air Force P38 Lightning fighter
Thus aware that on 18 April Yamamoto would be travelling aboard a G4M “Betty” bomber to the island of Bougainvill, the USAAF launched Operation Vengeance. Authorized all the way up to the White House, the Americans launched a flight of long range P38 Lightning fighters of the 339th Fighter Squadron from Guadalcanal to intercept the Japanese VIPs. Upon reaching the area, the eighteen fighters engaged, with the four planes of the “kill” unit pressing on the bombers as the others engaged the escorts. In the short engagement both bombers were shot down and crashed into the dense jungle. As the Americans returned home, Pearl Harbor had been avenged, and a great morale victory had been won. The Japanese, conversely, had lost one of their greatest leaders and national heroes, and the feeling of shock was profound despite the propaganda tales of his valiant death.
The Homefront
Topaz Internment Camp in Utah
On the various homefronts, all sides were by now set in for a long, hard war, but a few notable developments would take place. In the US, for example, vast numbers of American citizens of Japanese, German and Italian descent remained incarcerated within internment camps. In one noticeable incident at the Topaz Internment Camp in Utah, the MP guards fired at and killed internee James Wakasa while he was walking his dog inside the camp. According to authorities, the 63 year old chef had refused to comply with orders, although other internees reported it was unprovoked. The resulting outrage led to local authorities to call in additional troops in fear of a riot, although in the end nothing took place beyond a funeral with enormous attendance.
Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria meets with Hitler
In Europe, meanwhile, the Germans were exerting pressure on their allies to begin deporting Jews to them for extermination. This met with mixed results, as Hungarian Regent Miklos Horthy and Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria both refused to do so, although they did consent to place Jews in internment camps under their own control. The results of these meetings displeased Hitler, but with the situation in the east as tenuous as it was, there was little the Fuhrer could do lest he risk losing his Axis allies in the line against the Soviets.
Timeline
4-1-1943
Allied troops capture Sedjenane in Tunisia
IJN aircraft launch a counteroffensive in the Solomons, designated Operation I-Go
A new encrypted hotline, SIGSALY, goes into operation between London and Washington
4-2-1943
Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria visits Berlin, informing the Germans that his country will not hand over its Jewish population to them
4-3-1943
A riot occurs in Wellington, New Zealand, when American troops refuse to allow Maori soldiers into a club
4-4-1943
An American officer escapes a Japanese POW camp in the Philippines. Eventually reaching friendly territory with aid of Filipino Resistance fighters, he spreads the word about the Bataan Death March to the world.
Former leaders of the French Republic are transferred from Vichy authority to Germany for internment
4-5-1943
USAAF bombers destroy the Belgian town of Mortsel, causing significant civilian casualties
Dietrich Bonhoeffer, a German Lutheran Pastor, is arrested by the Gestapo for passing information to the British
4-6-1943
Allied forces attack the new Axis line near Wadi Akarit in Tunisia
4-7-1943
US forces under George Patton link up with Montgomery’s 8th Army as the Axis position at Wadi Akarit collapses
Hitler and Mussolini meet at Salzburg. The Duce is clearly weakened and speaks little as Hitler monologues.
4-8-1943
The Japanese begin work on the infamous Burma Railroad
4-9-1943
The Germans begin to liquidate the Jews in the Zborow Ghetto in Ukraine
4-10-1943
The port of Sfax in Tunisia is captured by the British
4-11-1943
James Wakasa, an interned Japanese-American at the Topaz Relocation Camp, is shot and killed by an MP
4-12-1943
Martin Bormann is named Private Secretary to the Fuhrer, making him arguably the second most powerful man in Germany
4-13-1943
The German Propaganda Ministry announces the discovery of the mass graves of Polish officers murdered by the Soviets at Katyn
4-14-1943
US cryptanalysts intercept a travel itinerary for Admiral Yamamnoto’s upcoming inspection tour in the South Pacific
4-16-1943
The Regia Marina defeats an attempt by the Royal Navy to destroy one of its convoys as it passes the island of Maretimo
4-17-1943
117 USAAF B17s raid Bremen
Luftwaffe Stukas raid Algiers, destroying an orphanage
Hungarian Regent Miklos Horthy refuses to deport Hungarian Jews in a meeting with Hitler
4-18-1943
US interceptors shoot down the transport carrying Admiral Yamamoto, killing the Admiral as the aircraft crashes into the jungles of Bougainville Island
4-19-1943
An armed uprising begins in the Warsaw Ghetto, with Jewish fighters engaging the SS as they attempt to liquidate the ghetto.
Belgian Resistance fighters allow over 200 Jews to escape a train bound for Auschwitz
The Japanese air offensive in the Solomons ends with little change in the tactical situation
4-20-1943
British forces attack the Axis stronghold at Enfidfa, leading to heavy casualties as the town falls
4-21-1943
A major Luftwaffe raid hits Aberdeen in Scotland
4-22-1943
Allied forces attack the Axis at what becomes known as Longstop Hill, the last major obstacle before Tunis
Australian troops attack the Japanese at Mubo and Bobdubi in New Guinea
4-23-1943
The SS begins to burn the Warsaw Ghetto
4-24-1943
A fire on the munitions ship El Estro in New York Harbor almost causes a massive explosion before being contained by local fire fighters
4-26-1943
The new US carrier USS Intrepid is launched
4-27-1943
US troops attack the remnants of the Afrika Korps at Hill 409 near Tunis
Himmler orders that able bodied prisoners in the concentration camps be spared for slave labor
4-28-1943
British Commandos raid Haugesund, Norway
The Japanese transport Kamakura Maru is torpedoed and sunk by an American submarine, with over 2,000 casualties
4-29-1943
A wolfpack attacks a large convoy in the Atlantic, resulting in relatively high losses for the Kriegsmarine
4-30-1943
A British submarine dumps the body of the vagrant Glyndwr Michael into the sea, with false identity papers and plans for an invasion of Greece. The body is left so that it will be found by Spanish authorities, known to be friendly to Germany
5-1-1943
Hill 409 falls to the Americans near Tunis
5-2-1943
20 Japanese planes bomb Darwin, Australia
5-3-1943
Royal Navy ships destroy an Italian convoy in the Mediterranean
General Frank Andrews, commander of US forces in Europe, is killed in a plane crash
5-5-1943
The Japanese 11th Army launches an offensive around Hubei
5-6-1943
A German wolfpack takes six casualties for twelve kills in an attack on a convoy in the North Atlantic
5-7-1943
Tunis falls to the British as Bizerte falls to the Americans
5-8-1943
Mordechai Anielewicz, leader of the uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto, is killed as the Jewish headquarters is overrun by the SS
The US Joint Chiefs resolves to accept only unconditional surrender from Japan
5-9-1943
A Luftwaffe JU88 bomber equipped with top of the line radar defects to Britain
5-10-1943
OKW approves plans for a summer offensive in the east around the Kursk Salient, designated Operation Citadel
Hitler issues a decree extending his dictator’s powers indefinitely
5-11-1943
US forces land on the Japanese-held Alaskan island of Attu, being engaged by dug in Japanese defenders
US Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox accidentally hints that Sicily is the target of the upcoming Allied offensive, but is dismissed by the Germans as an attempted feint
5-12-1943
Generals Hans-Jurgen von Arnim and Giovanni Messe, German and Italian commanders in North Africa, surrender to the Allies
Japanese troops secure a bridgehead over the Yangtze, attack the Chinese around Hubei
Churchill and Roosevelt meet in Washington for a conference
5-13-1943
The last German units surrender in Tunisia, ending the war in North Africa
5-14-1943
The Australian hospital ship AHS Centaur is sunk by a Japanese submarine
5-15-1943
An experimental US “Bat Bomb” is tested disastrously, with the incendiary-laden bats setting fire to most of the Carlsbad Army Airfield in New Mexico
5-16-1943
In Operation Chastise the RAF bombs two dams in the Ruhr with experimental “bouncing bombs”, destroying them and causing devastation in the German industrial heartland
The destruction of the Grand Synagogue in Warsaw marks the end of the SS liquidation operation in the Warsaw Ghetto
5-17-1943
The USAAF B17 Flying Fortress Memphis Belle is the first American bomber to complete its 25 mission tour of duty, being sent back to the US for a War Bond Drive with her crew
5-18-1943
Fearing the war coming to Italy, Pope Pius XII sends an appeal to Roosevelt for the sparing of Rome from bombing
5-19-1943
The German Government announces that Berlin is free of Jews
The US Army authorizes the use of penicillin for wounded soldiers
Churchill address the US Congress in an address that is also broadcast by radio, reaffirming Britain’s commitment against the Japanese
5-20-1943
Roosevelt proposes a secret meeting with Stalin, not even informing Churchill
5-21-1943
Japanese radio announces the death of Admiral Yamamoto
Riots occur in Sofia as the Bulgarian government moves to deport its Jewish citizens to Germany. This results in the cancellation of the program, with the Jews instead incarcerated in Bulgarian internment camps
5-22-1943
British commandos raid the Yugoslavian island of Mljet
The Comintern is dissolved by the Soviet government as a gesture of unity with the Western Allies
5-23-1943
An RAF raid drops 2,000 tons of bombs on Dortmund
5-24-1943
In light of heavy casuaties, Grand Admiral Donitz orders the U-boats to step back their operations in the Atlantic, moving back into the open ocean to avoid Allied aircraft
5-27-1943
German occupation authorities destroy large quantities of “degenerate art” in Paris
German forces liquidate the entire Jewish population of the Polish city of Tluste, with over 3,000 murdered
The US Office of War Mobilization is formed to coordinate different Federal departments in the war effort
5-28-1943
In the face of heavy casualties, the Japanese of Attu begin to launch suicidal Banzai charges against the Americans
5-29-1943
An RAF raid on Wuppertal creates a firestorm that kills an excess of 3,500
The famous Rosie the Riveter character is debuts on the cover of The Saturday Evening Post
5-30-1943
Attu is liberated by the Americans, with only 28 prisoners taken from the 2,500 Japanese defenders
5-31-1943
A Polish Resistance unit assassinates a Gestapo officer in Jędrzejów. The Germans execute 11 Poles and deport 25 more to Auschwitz in retaliation
6-1-1943
A US cargo ship collides with a tanker off the coast near Boston, leading to the loss of the freighter and heavy damage to the tanker
6-2-1943
The SS completes the liquidation of the Lwow Ghetto
6-3-1943
The Japanese withdraw from the Hubei area
A riot occurs in Los Angeles when soldiers and white civilians attack youths for wearing the fabric-intensive outfits, deeming them wasteful
The Free French form a Committee for National Liberation in Algiers
6-4-1943
De Gaulle, now President of Free France, names Henri Giraud as leader of the Free French Forces
6-8-1943
The Japanese battleship Mutsu explodes while in harbor in Japan
6-9-1943
18 year old George H. W. Bush becomes the youngest pilot in the US Navy
6-11-1943
Allied forces land on the Italian island of Pantelleria, which surrenders without resistance after days of concentrated aerial bombing
The RAF raids Dusseldrof and Munster, while the USAAF raids Wilhelmshaven and Cuxhaven
6-12-1943
A major air raid hits Dusseldorf
6-13-1943
General Nathan Bedford Forest III is killed when his B17 bomber is shot down during a raid on Kiel
Indian nationalist Subhas Bose arrives in Japan from Germany via submarine
6-14-1943
Operation Pointblank, the planned 24 hour bombing cycle intended to destroy the German aircraft industry, commences
Boris Podloski, a Russian-born scientist, turns over secret American nuclear research to the Soviets
6-15-1943
The Germans test the prototype of their new Arado AR234 jet bomber
6-18-1943
The all-black Tuskeegee Airmen of the USAAF engage the Luftwaffe for the first time over Pantelleria
6-19-1943
Hitler orders the mass removal of Jewish populations in the east
6-20-1943
Australian troops manage to hold off a Japanese attack at Lababia Ridge in New Guinea
6-21-1943
British commandos lead raids in Greece coordinated with local resistance to destroy rail infrastructure
6-25-1943
The US Government passes a law allowing them to seize striking business critical to the war effort
6-26-1943
Six German U-boat crews mutiny in Norway and are arrested
6-28-1943
The Italian criser Bari is sunk by USAAF bombers in the Mediterranean
US Marine Raiders and US Army troops land at Viru Harbor on New Georgia, securing it to support future operations on the island
The Germans begin to build a number of missile launch facilities in occupied France after the successful launch of the first production V2 rocket
6-30-1943
Operation Cartwheel commences as US forces land on New Georgia and Rendova Islands
US and Australian forces land at Nassau Bay in New Guinea